Recent research has examined the sexualization–objectification link (i.e., whether sexualized individuals are appraised as if they were objects rather than persons). This research has found that sexualized individuals are more likely to be processed and categorized as if they were objects and are also perceived as possessing fewer humanlike traits than nonsexualized individuals. In addition, sexualization prompts negative behaviors such as social exclusion. Altogether, these findings shed light on mechanisms that might underlie violence toward sexualized individuals.
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The first line of research we review in this article investigates the sexualization–objectification link through a process-focused lens (i.e., uncovering the cognitive processes underlying the perception and categorization of sexualized individuals as objects). Whether the human brain processes human faces and bodies differently from how it processes objects is one of the most vibrant topics in cognitive neuroscience. Using electroencephalography (EEG), a method that records brain activities evoked by stimuli with a temporal resolution on the order of milliseconds, studies have demonstrated that faces, bodies, and objects trigger the N170, a visual component occurring about 170 ms after stimulus onset in the occipitotemporal electrode sites (for a review, see de Gelder et al., 2010). However, human faces typically trigger larger N170s than human bodies, and human bodies typically trigger larger N170s than objects (de Gelder et al., 2010). Recent research has examined whether this component can be affected by the visibility of sexual body parts. Hietanen and Nummenmaa (2011) found that N170 amplitude increases linearly as a function of body nudity: Nude bodies triggered larger N170s than sexualized bodies (bodies wearing swimsuits), and sexualized bodies triggered larger N170s than nonsexualized bodies (fully clothed bodies). Sexualized (and naked) bodies are more arousing than nonsexualized bodies, and this difference is associated with larger N170s for the former than for the latter (for similar findings, see Alho, Salminen, Sams, Hietanen, & Nummenmaa, 2015; Feng, Wang, Wang, Gu, & Luo, 2012).
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Humans tend to appraise the mental and affective states of other individuals to predict their actions and display appropriate behaviors toward them (Singer & Lamm, 2009). To attain this aim, people ascribe mental states (e.g., intention, emotions) to others, a process referred to as mentalization (Allen, Fonagy, & Bateman, 2008). A recent line of research has examined the effect of sexualization on mentalization. Specifically, this research addressed the sexualization–objectification link through a content-focused lens (i.e., whether people attribute less humanlike traits and more objectlike traits to sexualized individuals than to nonsexualized ones).
Behavioral research found that sexualized women are perceived as possessing less warmth, less competence, less mind, less moral status, and less agency (e.g., Bernard & Wollast, 2019; Gray, Knobe, Sheskin, Bloom, & Barrett, 2011; Loughnan et al., 2010). Importantly, this dehumanizing effect of sexualization predicts the way people perceive suffering of women and how they behave toward them. When sexualized, rape victims and women suffering from intimate partner violence are perceived as being more responsible than nonsexualized women, and this effect is explained by diminished attributions of mental states and moral concern (Loughnan, Pina, Vasquez, & Puvia, 2013; Pacilli et al., 2017).
The recent cross-fertilization of theory and methods stemming from the social and neuroscience tradition has also helped to enable a fine-grained analysis of the underlying brain mechanisms involved in these effects. The interplay between sexualization and the brain networks involved in mentalization and empathic behaviors has been studied with functional MRI (fMRI). This method allows detection, with good spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution, of brain regions that are activated in response to a given phenomenon. Cikara et al. (2011) conducted an fMRI study in which participants viewed sexualized women and nonsexualized women while activations of the brain mentalizing network were recorded. This network comprises brain regions (e.g., the prefrontal cortex) that are typically activated when people make mental inferences about others or themselves but not when people view images of objects (for a meta-analysis, see Mar, 2011). Cikara and colleagues found that participants who held sexist attitudes showed reduced activation of the mentalizing network when watching pictures of sexualized women, but this pattern did not emerge when participants viewed images of nonsexualized women. These results thus suggest a lower mentalization of sexualized women.
Importantly, this lower activation of the brain mentalizing network triggered by sexualization is also associated with diminished empathic behaviors toward sexualized women. Empathy refers to a process whereby people experience the unique affective states of another person (i.e., what the other feels is mirrored in observers’ feelings; Decety & Jackson, 2004). Cogoni, Carnaghi, and Silani (2018) analyzed the relationship between sexualization and empathic reactions at behavioral and neural levels. Cogoni and colleagues relied on a social-exclusion task (Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000) during which participants witnessed sexualized and nonsexualized women being excluded from an interactive ball-tossing game. Participants’ neural responses were recorded together with their explicit, self-reported empathic reactions. Results indicated that participants showed less empathic reactions for sexualized women than for nonsexualized women at the explicit level. At the neural level, brain areas involved in both empathy and mentalization were recruited to a lesser extent when participants were presented with the social exclusion of sexualized women than of nonsexualized women. In sum, sexualization affects empathic responses toward women at both neural and explicit levels.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/1 ... 1419898187
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